Rare Earth Elements: the Hidden Gem of Drive Technology, Conflict and A Green Future 

ESS105H1

In today's world of rapid technological development, we have long become accustomed to high-performance electronic devices, convenient means of transport and ever more advanced military technology. However, few people realize that all of this relies on a group of key metals known as ‘rare earth elements. Rare earth elements (REEs) include the lanthanides (atomic numbers 57–71) as well as scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y). Although they are not rare in the earth's crust, their placements are so dispersed, that they are called rare. Rare earth elements are important because of their unique physical and chemical features, such as excellent magnetism, conductivity of electricity, and optical properties. (Balaram, 2019). These features allow rare earth elements to play the role of ‘vitamins’ in the high-tech industry. From the Bayan Obo mining region in Inner Mongolia, China, to military laboratories in California, USA, rare earth elements have not only driven technological progress, but also influenced global environmental policy and geopolitical landscapes. This article will explore in depth why rare earth elements are known as the ‘new oil’ of the 21st century, from the scientific basis of rare earth elements, to innovations in mining technology and environmental impacts, to their importance in the international political and military arenas. (Jordens, 2013).

Sub-theme 1: The basics of rare earth elements – not rare, but hard to find

Although rare earth elements are widespread in the earth's crust, they are often dispersed in various minerals at extremely low concentrations, making it difficult to extract them cost-effectively. Rare earth elements include 15 lanthanides, as well as scandium and yttrium, which are similar in nature. These 17 elements are irreplaceable in the high-tech industry. Neodymium (Nd), for example, is widely used to make high-performance permanent magnets, which are a key component of electric vehicle motors and wind turbines. Europium (Eu) is a key material for the bright red light emitted by LEDs and fluorescent screens. Terbium (Tb) improves the brightness and clarity of liquid crystal displays (LCDs), while lanthanum (La) is used in optical devices and camera lenses to enhance image quality.

The geographical distribution of rare earth elements is markedly uneven. More than 70% of the world's proven rare earth reserves are concentrated in China, particularly in the Bayan Obo mining area in Inner Mongolia. The Bayan Obo deposit is one of the world's largest known rare earth deposits. Its formation is closely related to deep magmatic activity, and the ore is rich in many rare earth elements. However, in addition to China, Australia's Mount Weld, the Mountain Pass Mine in the United States, and the Amazon Basin in Brazil are also significant reserves of rare earth resources (U.S. Geological Survey, 2023). Most of these deposits were formed by complex geological processes such as magmatic activity, hydrothermal action, and weathering and leaching. These factors all contribute to the dispersibility of the rare earth elements in the geological environment, making mining and extraction more difficult. To make this difficult situation worse, rare earth minerals often occur in association with the radioactive elements thorium (Th) and uranium (U). This can lead to radioactive contamination during mining, posing a potential threat to the environment and human health (Jordens et al., 2013).

In recent years, with the growing global demand for rare earths, countries have increased their exploration and development of rare earth resources. However, the mining of rare earth resources is not just a technical issue, but also involves aspects of environmental protection, social ethics, and international relations. How to achieve the efficient use of rare earth resources while protecting the ecological environment has become an important challenge the world is facing.

Sub-theme 2: Mining technology – innovation from pollution to environmental protection
  REEs play an important role in the high-tech industry, but traditional extraction methods often use toxic organic solvents, which pose environmental and health problems. (Neves, 2022). Traditional mining techniques for rare earths mainly include open-pit mining and acid leaching. Although open-pit mining can quickly obtain large amounts of ore, it often destroys large areas of land, resulting in the loss of vegetation, soil erosion, and ecosystem damage. In addition, rare earth deposits often contain radioactive elements such as thorium and uranium, which can easily be released into the environment during the mining process, causing radioactive pollution. On the other hand, acid leaching involves dissolving rare earth elements from the ore by using strong acids such as sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid. However, this process produces a large amount of toxic waste in both liquid and gas forms, which pollutes the soil, water, and air. (Vanth et al, 2020). For example, the complex geochemical characteristics of the Bayan Obo deposit make the radioactive elements released during mining a great threat to the environment and the health of surrounding residents.

Faced with the serious environmental problems caused by traditional mining methods, scientists are constantly exploring more environmentally friendly and efficient rare earth elements extraction technologies. Bioleaching technology is an environmentally friendly mining method that has received a lot of attention in recent years. This technology uses acidophilic bacteria (such as iron (II) oxide-sulfur bacteria) to decompose ores and release rare earth elements from the ores. These bacteria have been genetically modified and optimized for adaptation, and are already able to work efficiently in high metal concentrations. They show great potential for use, especially when processing waste such as electronic waste, they can greatly reduce environmental pollution (Anaya-Garzon et al., 2021).

Another important environmentally friendly technology is ionic liquid extraction. Traditional solvent extraction methods often require high temperatures and pressures, and the use of large amounts of organic solvents, which are energy-intensive and pollute the environment. Ion liquids are a new type of environmentally friendly solvent with extremely low volatility and high thermal stability. Research has found that the use of the ionic liquid [C4mim] [NTf2] for the extraction of rare earth elements can significantly improve the efficiency for separating the elements, which is 30% higher than that of traditional methods, while greatly reduce the impact on the environment.

In addition to innovations in mining technology, rare earth recycling is also an important way to achieve sustainable development. The concept of ‘urban mining’ has emerged, which is to reduce the dependence on raw mineral resources by recycling and reusing rare earth elements in waste electronic equipment. Dowa Holdings in Japan extracts about 200 tons of rare earth elements from electronic waste such as discarded mobile phones, computers and batteries every year, successfully reducing the import demand by 10% (Harper et al., 2020). This circular economy model not only reduces the waste of rare earth resources, but also significantly reduces the risk of environmental pollution, providing new ideas for the sustainable use of global rare earth resources.

Environmental justice is also an important issue that cannot be ignored in the process of achieving environmentally friendly mining. Despite the enormous potential of ionic liquids, industrial applications still face challenges such as cost, recovery and ecotoxicity. (Liu et al, 2012). Taking the Cree of the Eeyou Istchee region in Canada as an example, they have cooperated with mining companies to participate in resource development while respecting the land and culture. For example, the use of drones to map mining areas has replaced traditional large-scale blasting, greatly reducing ecological damage. At the same time, tailings ponds are located away from water sources to avoid water pollution. These practices not only protect the local natural environment, but also safeguard the cultural and economic interests of indigenous peoples, fully demonstrating the positive role of scientific and technological progress in reducing social and environmental conflicts (Vanthuyne and Gauthier, 2022).

Sub-theme 3: Geopolitics and military applications – the new oil scrambles
The strategic importance of rare earth resources extends far beyond the technological

and economic spheres. In international geopolitics, rare earths are considered the ‘new oil’, and the stability of their supply chain is directly related to national security. In 2010, China implemented rare earth resource export quota restrictions and industrial restructuring policies, aiming to shift rare earth resources from primary product exports to high value-added downstream industries such as the manufacture of permanent magnets and new energy equipment. This policy immediately attracted global attention and concern, especially from major rare earth elements’ consumers such as the EU, the United States, and Japan, who became aware of the potential risks of over-reliance on a single supplier (Wübbeke, 2013). To meet the growing future demand for critical rare earth elements, it is necessary to diversify supply sources and reduce dependence on a single country or region. This requires global cooperation and investment to ensure the stability and security of the rare earth element supply chain.

The EU has formulated a series of strategies to ensure the security and stability of the rare earth supply chain. The European Commission has made it clear that rare earth elements are of irreplaceable importance to Europe's economic development and strategic security. In order to reduce its dependence on rare earth suppliers such as China, the EU has proposed measures such as strengthening cooperation with other countries that are rich in rare earth resources, promoting the research and development of rare earth elements’ alternative materials, and strengthening the circular economy and resource recovery. By diversifying the supply chain and increasing resource recovery rates, the EU hopes to achieve autonomy and control over rare earth supplies (von der Leyen, 2022).

The United States is also not far behind, and they are actively taking measures to ensure the security of rare earth supply. On the one hand, the United States has increased its exploration and development of local rare earth mineral resources, resumed production in the Mountain Pass mining district, and invested heavily in technology research and development. On the other hand, the United States has established strategic cooperation with allied countries such as Australia and Canada to ensure a stable supply of rare earth resources. This tendency towards resource nationalism is triggering a new round of competition for rare earth resources on a worldwide level.

Conclusion
The importance of rare earth elements as key materials that drive modern technology

is self-evident. However, the mining, utilization, and management of rare earth resources not only affects technological and economic development, but also environmental protection, social justice and international politics. As citizens, we can contribute to the sustainable development of rare earth resources in a variety of ways, for example, by supporting the government in formulating stricter environmental protection regulations for mines, choosing products that promise to recycle rare earth elements, and even joining organizations that monitor companies and advocate transparency for relevant regulations. Only by combining public awareness of environmental protection with green technological innovation can the fair utilization and sustainable development of rare earth resources be achieved, creating a better tomorrow for our technological future and the sustainable ecology of the planet.